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The Importance of Learning Styles in ESL/EFL
Tatyana Putintseva
tatyana[at}nucba.ac.jp
Koryo International College, (Nisshin, Japan)
This article reminds the teachers
of the need to be aware of individual learning styles and learner
diversity. While the Multiple Intelligences Theory of Howard
Gardner is the most popular and readily used by teachers (Currie,
2003), there are other ideas about learning styles, which also can be
useful for EFL/ESL teachers.
Introduction
EFL/ESL teachers, just like all other educators, have to bear in
mind that:
- People differ consistently from each other in their preferences
(e.g., emotional, environmental) for certain ways of processing
information (the 'individual differences' assumption).
- These individual differences are measurable (the 'measurement'
assumption).
- Matching or mismatching students' learning styles with
instructional techniques affects learning significantly (the 'matching
hypothesis') (Bedford, 2004).
But are classroom teachers always prepared to try matching their
teaching styles with learning styles of their students? Do they always
remember to cater to different learning styles?
The growing popularity of Gardner's Multiple Intelligences
(Gardner, 1985) among
language teachers shows that many of them are aware of learner
diversity. But not all teachers find the Multiple Intelligences(MI)
theory attractive enough or
easy to implement. There might be two reasons for
this.
- First, EFL/ESL teachers work with different categories of
students: some teach school students, while others teach college or
university students. The variety and nature of learning styles of
school students would, presumably, differ from those of students in
engineering colleges or universities of education.
- Second, not only do learners differ from each other, but also
teachers differ in their teaching styles. Thus, a variety of
perspectives is required for teachers to consider. This variety is
provided by research.
Various Perspectives on Learning Styles
There is no agreement on the number or variety of learning
styles. A number of learning style models can be found in the research
on this subject. These fall into general categories such as information
processing, personality patterns, and social interaction (Conner, 2004).
Information Processing
This distinguishes between the way learners sense, think, solve
problems, and remember information. Kolb's Learning Styles inventory
and Gregorc's Mind Styles Model are those most frequently mentioned in
this category.
Learning Styles inventory (Kolb, 1984) includes:
- Diverging (feeling and watching)
- People
with diverging styles are able to look at things from different
perspectives. They are sensitive. They prefer to watch rather than do,
tend to gather information and use imagination to solve problems. They
are best at viewing concrete situations from several different
viewpoints. Kolb called this style 'Diverging' because these people
perform better in situations that require ideas-generation, for
example, brainstorming. They have broad cultural interests and like to
gather information. They are interested in people, tend to be
imaginative and emotional, and tend to be strong in the arts. They
prefer to work in groups, to listen with an open mind and to receive
personal feedback.
- Assimilating (watching and
thinking) - The Assimilating
learning preference is for a concise, logical approach. Ideas and
concepts are more important than people. These people require good
clear explanation rather than practical opportunity. They excel at
understanding wide-ranging information and organizing it in a clear
logical format. They are less focused on people and more interested in
ideas. People with this style are more attracted to theories than
practice. In formal learning situations, people with this style prefer
readings, lectures, exploring analytical models, and having time to
think.
- Converging (doing and thinking)
- People with a
Converging learning style use their learning to find solutions to
practical issues. They prefer technical tasks, and are less concerned
with people. They can solve problems and make decisions. A Converging
learning style enables specialist and technology abilities. People with
a Converging style like to experiment with new ideas, to simulate, and
to work with practical applications.
- Accommodating (doing and feeling)
- The
Accommodating learning style is 'hands-on', and relies on intuition
rather than logic. These people use other people's analyses, and prefer
to take a practical, experiential approach. They are attracted to new
challenges and experiences, and to carrying out plans. They commonly
act on 'gut' instinct rather than logical analysis. Also, they tend to
rely on others for information. This learning style is prevalent and
useful in roles requiring action and initiative. People with this
learning style prefer to work in teams to complete tasks. They set
targets and actively work in the field trying different ways to achieve
an objective (Kolb, 1984).
A. F. Gregorc's Mind Styles Model identifies four major learning types
(Gregorc, 1985):
- Concrete Sequential (CS) These learners like order,
logical
sequence, following directions, predictability, and getting facts. They
learn best when they have a structured environment. They can rely on
others and can apply ideas in pragmatic ways. They find hard: working
in groups, pointless discussions, an unorganized environment,
incomplete or unclear directions, unpredictable people, abstract ideas,
demands to "use your imagination", questions with no right or wrong
answers.
- Abstract Random (AR)
These learners like listening to
others, bringing harmony to group situations, establishing healthy
relationships with others, focusing on the issues at hand. They learn
best when they are: in a personalized environment, given broad or
general guidelines, able to maintain friendly relationships, and able
to participate in group activities. They find hard: having to explain
or justify feelings, competition, working with
dictatorial/authoritarian personalities, working in a restrictive
environment, working with people who don't seem friendly, concentrating
on one thing at a time, giving exact details, accepting even positive
criticism.
- Abstract Sequential
(AS)
These learners like: their point
to be heard, analyzing situations before making a decision or acting,
and applying logic. They learn best when: they have access to experts
or references, they are placed in stimulating environments, and they
are able to work alone. They find hard: being forced to work with those
of differing views, having too little time to deal with a subject
thoroughly, repeating the same tasks over and over, lots of specific
rules and regulations, "sentimental" thinking, expressing their
emotions, being diplomatic when convincing others, and not monopolizing
a conversation.
- Concrete Random (CR)
These learners like:
experimenting to find answers, taking risks, using their intuition, and
solving problems independently. They learn best when: they are able to
use trial-and-error approaches, they are able to compete with others,
and are given the opportunity to work through problems by themselves.
They find hard: restrictions and limitations, formal reports, routines,
re-doing anything once it's done, keeping detailed records, showing how
they got an answer, choosing only one answer, having no options.
Personality Patterns
These focus on attention, emotion, and values. Understanding
these differences allows predicting the way learners react and feel
about different situations. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and the
Keirsey Temperament Sorter are two of the most well-known personality
pattern evaluations.
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator measures preferences on four scales
derived from Jung's Theory of Psychological Types (Myers &
McCaulley, 1985). People are classified according to their
preference for:
- Introversion (I)
(interest flowing mainly to the inner world of
concepts and ideas);
- Extroversion (E)
(interest flowing mainly to the outer world of
actions, objects, and persons);
- Sensing (S) (tending to
perceive immediate, real, practical facts
of experience and life);
- Intuition (N) (tending to
perceive possibilities, relationships,
and meanings of experiences);
- Thinking (T) (tending to
make judgments or decisions objectively
and impersonally);
- Feeling (F) (tending to
make judgments subjectively and
personally);
- Judging (J) (tending to
act in a planned and decisive way);
- Perceiving (P) (tending
to act in a spontaneous and flexible
way).
On this basis, some claim that an individual learning type can be
made out of sixteen possible combinations of these preferences (Felder,
Felder, and Dietz, 2002). For example, an ENTP would have a preference
for extroversion, intuition, thinking, and perception. A
preference for one or the other category of a dimension may be mild or
strong. Students with different type preferences tend to respond
differently to different teaching styles. Extroverts like activity and
group work; introverts prefer working alone. Sensors like
concrete learning experiences and clearly defined expectations and
dislike instruction heavy in abstractions such as theories and
mathematical models; intuitors like instruction based on understanding
concepts rather than on memorization of facts, rote substitution, and
repetitive calculations. Thinkers like logically organized
presentations of course material and feedback related to their work.
Feelers like those teachers who establish a personal rapport with them
and show appreciation of their efforts. Judgers like well-structured
instruction with clearly defined assignments, goals, and milestones.
Perceivers like to have choice and flexibility in their assignments and
dislike rigid timelines (Felder et al., 2002).
David Keirsey identifies the following temperament types (Keirsey,
1998):
- Artisans: born for
action, particularly for artful action --
making free, spontaneous maneuvers that get quick, effective results.
They have a natural talent for all the arts, not only the fine arts but
also the dramatic, athletic, military, political, and financial arts.
- Guardians: undertake
tasks and actions cautiously, and always
with careful preparation. Guardians are sensible, down-to-earth people.
They believe in following the rules and regulations.
- Idealists: have an
instinct for interpersonal integration,
sometimes become leaders, and often speak interpretively and
metaphorically of the abstract world of their imagination.
- Rationals: tend to be
organizing and planning, or inventing and
configuring operations. They are competent and pragmatic.
Among other models that could be considered as belonging in the
personality-based category are those built by
B. McCarthy and H. Gardner. McCarthy (1990) identified four
learning styles:
- Innovative learners: they
look for personal meaning while
learning, draw on their values while learning, enjoy social
interaction, cooperate and want to make the world a better place.
- Analytic learners: they
want to develop intellectually while
learning, draw on facts while learning, they are patient and
reflective, they want to know " important things" and to add to the
world's knowledge.
- Common sense learners:
they want to find solutions, they value
things if they are useful, they are kinesthetic, they are practical and
straightforward, they want to make things happen.
- Dynamic learners: they
look for hidden possibilities, judge
things by gut reactions, synthesize information from different sources,
and are enthusiastic and adventurous.
H. Gardner's (1985) concept of multiple intelligences', as mentioned
earlier, is commonly viewed as, in fact, a model of learning styles.
According to this point of view, the following types of learning styles
can be identified (Gardner, 1985):
- Visual Learners. These
learners need to see the teacher's body
language and facial expression to fully understand the content of a
lesson. They tend to prefer sitting at the front of the classroom to
avoid visual obstructions. They may think in pictures and learn best
from visual displays. They often prefer to take detailed notes to
absorb the information.
- Auditory learners. They
learn best through verbal lectures,
discussions, talking things through and listening to what others have
to say. Auditory learners interpret the underlying meanings of speech
through listening to tone of voice, pitch, speed and other nuances.
Written information may have little meaning. These learners often
benefit from reading text aloud and using a tape recorder.
- Tactile/Kinesthetic learners.
They learn best through a hands-on
approach, actively exploring the physical world around them. They may
find it hard to sit still for long periods and may become distracted.
Social Interaction
This looks at likely attitudes, habits, and strategies learners will
take toward their work and how they engage with their peers when they
learn. The Reichmann-Grasha model, for instance, focuses on student
attitudes toward learning, classroom activities, teachers, and peers.
This model identifies the following types and their characteristics
(Reichmann & Grasha, 1974):
- Avoidant students tend to
be at the lower end of the grade
distribution. They tend to have high absenteeism, they organize their
work poorly, and take little responsibility for their learning.
- Participative students
are characterized as willing to accept
responsibility for self-learning and relate well to their peers.
- Competitive students are
described as suspicious of their peers
leading to competition for rewards and recognition.
- Collaborative students
enjoy working in harmony with their peers.
- Dependent students
typically become frustrated when facing new
challenges not directly addressed in the classroom.
- Independent students, as
the name implies, prefer to work alone
and require little direction from the teacher.
Conclusion
The models listed above can prove applicable in some situations
and not applicable in others. A critical and careful approach is
obviously required when deciding which theory one should follow.
First, it is important to take into account the specific
characteristics of the educational institution: age group of students
(determines how flexible their learning styles can be), the
nature of education provided by the school (general or
specialized). Second, teachers also have their own approaches to
the classroom
and their own teaching styles. Thus, it is important to consider not
just one, but a variety of approaches to learning styles and
select the most appropriate from both objective and personal
perspectives.
References
- Bedford, T. A. (2004). Learning styles: a review of literature
(first draft). Toowoomba, OPACS, The University of Southern
Queensland.
- Conner, M. L. "Introduction to Learning Styles." Ageless Learner,
1997-2004. http://agelesslearner.com/intros/lstyleintro.html
- Currie, K. L. (2003). Multiple Intelligence Theory and the
ESL Classroom – Preliminary Considerations. The Internet TESL Journal,
Vol. IX, No. 4. http://iteslj.org/Articles/Currie-MITheory.html
- Gardner, H. (1985). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple
intelligences. New York: Basic Books Inc.
- Felder, R.M., Felder, G.N. & Dietz, E.J. (2002). The Effects
of Personality Types on Engineering Student Performance and Attitudes.
Journal of Engineering Education, 91(1), 3-17.
- Gregorc, A. F. (1985). An adult's guide to style (2nd. ed.).
Columbia, CT: Gregorc Associates Inc.
- Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the
source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice-Hall.
- McCarthy, B. (1990). Using the 4MAT system to bring learning
styles to schools. Educational Leadership, 48(2), 31-36.
- Myers, I.B. & McCaulley, M.H. (1985). Manual: A Guide to the
Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, Consulting
Psychologists Press, Palo Alto, CA.
- O'Connor, T. (1997). Using Learning Styles to Adapt Technology
for Higher Education. http://web.indstate.edu/ctl/styles/learning.html
- Riechmann, S. W., & Grasha, A. F. (1974). A rational approach
to developing and assessing the construct validity of a student
learning styles instrument. Journal of Psychology, 87, 213223.
The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. XII, No. 3, March 2006
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