This paper presents an application of Genre Analysis on academic writing instruction. More specifically, techniques and steps for enabling ESF/EFL learners to organize and develop literature reviews are presented and explained.
Academic writing problems may be partly due to language proficiency. Studies on the performance of bilingual students by Collier (1987 and 1989) and Cummins (1981), suggest that while conversational skills can be acquired within two years of exposure to the language, academic skills may take from four to nine years. The fact is, however, that neither students nor teachers can wait for so long. For that reason, it is important to use an approach to academic writing instruction that maximizes students' knowledge and capacities and enables them to write academically and successfully. The approach and techniques that will be presented below are based on the concept of genre analysis (Swales 1990) and they have proven to be effective with undergraduate EFL learners.
To illustrate this paragraph model, teachers can show the following example.Structure of a Paragraph in the Literature Review
A concept is introduced / A point is made (topic sentence) + It is supported with references or previous research results + More support is added + If there is information refuting (contradicting) the point made, it is added + More negative evidence is added, if there is + The different points of view are compared and contrasted + A conclusion (restating the topic sentence) is drawn.
Exercise: Read the following paragraph and try to find the structure above. Determine to what extent they follow this model and state whether you see some differences.
Paragraph Topic: Learning Styles
In order to understand best the importance of learning styles in the language classroom, it is first important to provide a definition of what learning styles are. Reid (1995) defines learning style as "an individual's natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information ands skills". In a similar way, Brown (2000) states that every person has their own natural way to perceive, transform, learn, and possess knowledge and information in their environment. Using a narrower concept, Larsen-Freeman & Long (1991, p. 192) define ‘cognitive style' as "the preferred way in which learners process information or address a task". Their definition is limited in that, as will be seen when a classification of learning styles is given (Reid 1995), there are learning styles that do not depend on cognitive processes. Finally, it is important to mention that learning styles will not vary across teaching methods and content areas, they will persist (Reid 1995 and 1998); and, even though they develop gradually in children, they are supposed to be more or less permanent in adults (Brown 2000). It can then be concluded that learning styles are the somewhat permanent ways in which learners perceive, process, and understand the information around them.
After having introduced to learners to the rhetorical organization
of literature review paragraph, the next step is to have them do a guided
writing exercise.
Paragraph Writing Practice: Look at the sample outline below. Read the information carefully and develop it into a paragraph. Remember to use the structure outlined above.
| CONCEPTS FROM OUTLINE | NOTES FROM BOOKS | YOUR POINT OF VIEW |
|---|---|---|
| 2.2 Defining Syllabus |
"Description of the contents of a course of instruction and the order in
which they are to be taught" (Richards et al. 1992, p. 368).
Nunan (1988a) "syllabus is seen as being concerned essentially with the selection and grading of content, while methodology is concerned with the selection of learning tasks and activities". Widdowson (1984, p. 26) defines syllabus as a general plan of activities that can be applied in a class to facilitate the learning process. Yalden (1984, p. 14): syllabus is considered as an instrument by means of which the teacher can achieve a degree of accomplishment between needs and social or individual actions in the class. | A syllabus is useful because it specifies the content of the course to be taught. |
Learners can then compare their work with the model paragraph below:
| Subordinators | Sentence Connectors | Phrase Linkers | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Addition | Furthermore, ... In addition, ... Moreover, ... |
In addition to..., ... | |
| Adversative | ..., although Although ..., ... Even though ____, ... Despite the fact that.. |
However, ... Nevertheless, ... |
Despite ..., ... In spite of ..., ... |
| Cause and Effect | ...because... Since..., ... ..., since ... |
Therefore, ... As a result, ... Consequently, ... ..., hence... Thus, ... |
Because of... Due to... As a result of... |
| Clarification | In other words, ... That is, ... i.e., ... |
||
| Contrast | While ..., ... ..., whereas ... |
In contrast, ... However, ... On the other hand, ... Conversely, ... |
Unlike ... , ... |
| Illustration | For example, ... For instance, ... |
||
| Intensification | On the contrary, ... As a matter of fact, ... In fact, ... |
Information: John is very old and ugly, John is filthy rich. No point of view ? John is very old, ugly, and filthy rich.We could come up with endless examples looking at the same information from different points of view. At this point students will be ready to do some exercises related to actual theory.Different Points of View Using Connectors:
John is old and ugly. However , he is filthy rich John is filthy rich. Nevertheless , he is old and ugly. Despite the fact that John is old and ugly, women love him because he is filthy rich. John has some qualities, for example , he is filthy rich. On the other hand , he has the unwanted characteristics of being old and ugly. While Peter is young and handsome, John is old and ugly. In fact , John's appearance is disgusting. Unlike John, who is filthy rich, Peter is an abbreviated piece of nothing. As a result , women prefer John. John is filthy rich and, although he is old and ugly, women love him.
Point to be made: Explaining the construct of writing ability.Information from Bibliography:
Additional Information: All these abilities seem to be inextricably linked. Some people organize them into the broader concept of ‘communicative competence' (Scarcella and Oxford, 1992).Lexico-grammatical ability - the ability to use correct structures and vocabulary (Hadley 1993). Cognitive ability - the ability to self-consciously use linguistic and intellectual resources (Bartholomae and Petrosky, 1986; Elbow, 1990; Nelson, 1991; Reid, 1993; Shaughnessy, 1977). Discourse ability - The ability to organize one's ideas in a cohesive and coherent manner (Scarcella and Oxford, 1992) Sociolinguistic ability - the ability to use language that is appropriate in a social context (Scarcella and Oxford 1992) Task: Using connectors, write several sentences where you take different positions.
Simply explain the components of the reading ability construct. Compare and contrast different abilities, then Emphasize the importance of grammatical ability over cognitive ability. Emphasize the importance of cognitive ability over grammatical ability. Emphasize the importance of discourse and sociolinguistic ability. Explain the importance of all the elements and their relations.